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Sex

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaJump to: navigation, searchThis article is about gametic sex. For other uses, such as sexual intercourse and gender, see Sex (disambiguation).

[1][2][3]Successful reproductive sex in animals results in the fusion of a sperm and egg cell.In biology, sex is a process of combining and mixing genetic traits, often resulting in the specialization of organisms into a male or female variety (each known as a sex). Sexual reproduction involves combining specialized cells (gametes) to form offspring that inherit traits from both parents. Gametes can be identical in form and function (known as isogametes), but in many cases an asymmetry has evolved such that two sex-specific types of gametes (heterogametes) exist: male gametes are small, motile, and optimized to transport their genetic information over a distance, while female gametes are large, non-motile and contain the nutrients necessary for the early development of the young organism.

An organism's sex is defined by the gametes it produces: males produce male gametes (spermatozoa, or sperm) while females produce female gametes (ova, or egg cells); individual organisms which produce both male and female gametes are termed hermaphroditic. Frequently, physical differences are associated with the different sexes of an organism; these sexual dimorphisms can reflect the different reproductive pressures the sexes experience.

Evolution

Main article: Evolution of sexual reproductionIt is considered that sexual reproduction first appeared about a billion years ago, evolved within ancestral single-celled eukaryotes. The reason for the initial evolution of sex, and the reason(s) it has survived to the present, are still matters of debate. Some of the many plausible theories include: that sex creates variation among offspring, sex helps in the spread of advantageous traits, and that sex helps in the removal of disadvantageous traits.

Sexual reproduction is a process specific to eukaryotes, organisms whose cells contain a nucleus and mitochondria. In addition to animals, plants, and fungi, other eukaryotes (e.g. the malaria parasite) also engage in sexual reproduction. Some bacteria use conjugation to transfer genetic material between cells; while not the same as sexual reproduction, this also results in the mixture of genetic traits.

What is considered defining of sexual reproduction is the difference between the gametes and the binary nature of fertilization. Multiplicity of gamete types within a species would still be considered a form of sexual reproduction. However, no third gamete is known in multicellular animals.

While the evolution of sex itself dates to the eukaryote stage, the origin of chromosomal sex determination is younger. The ZW sex-determination system is shared by birds, some fish and some crustaceans. Most mammals, but also some insects (Drosophila) and plants (Ginkgo) use XY sex-determination. X0 sex-determination is found in certain insects.

No genes are shared between the avian ZW and mammal XY chromosomes, and from a comparison between chicken and human, the Z chromosome appeared similar to the autosomal chromosome 9 in human, rather than X or Y, suggesting that the ZW and XY sex-determination systems do not share an origin, but that the sex chromosomes are derived from autosomal chromosomes of the common ancestor of birds and mammals. A paper from 2004 compared the chicken Z chromosome with platypus X chromosomes and suggested that the two systems are related.

Sexual reproduction

Main article: Sexual reproduction[4][5]The life cycle of sexually reproducing organisms cycles through haploid and diploid stages.Sexual reproduction is a process where organisms form offspring that combine genetic traits from both parents. Chromosomes are passed on from one generation to the next in this process. Each cell in the offspring has half the chromosomes of the mother and half of the father. Genetic traits are contained within the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) of chromosomes – by combining one of each type of chromosomes from each parent, an organism is formed containing a doubled set of chromosomes. This double-chromosome stage is called "diploid", while the single-chromosome stage is "haploid". Diploid organisms can, in turn, form haploid cells (gametes) that randomly contain one of each of the chromosome pairs, via a process called meiosis. Meiosis also involves a stage of chromosomal crossover, in which regions of DNA are exchanged between matched types of chromosomes, to form a new pair of mixed chromosomes. Crossing over and fertilization (the recombining of single sets of chromosomes to make a new diploid) result in the new organism containing a different set of genetic traits from either parent.

In many organisms, the haploid stage has been reduced to just gametes specialized to recombine and form a new diploid organism; in others, the gametes are capable of undergoing cell division to produce multicellular haploid organisms. In either case, gametes may be externally similar, particularly in size (isogamy), or may have evolved an asymmetry such that the gametes are different in size and other aspects (anisogamy). By convention, the larger gamete (called an ovum, or egg cell) is considered female, while the smaller gamete (called a spermatozoon, or sperm cell) is considered male. An individual that produces exclusively large gametes is female, and one that produces exclusively small gametes is male. An individual that produces both types of gametes is a hermaphrodite; in some cases hermaphrodites are able to self-fertilize and produce offspring on their own, without a second organism.

Animals

[6][7]Hoverflies engaging in sexual intercourseMost sexually reproducing animals spend their lives as diploid organisms, with the haploid stage reduced to single cell gametes. The gametes of animals have male and female forms—spermatozoa and egg cells. These gametes combine to form embryos which develop into a new organism.

The male gamete, a spermatozoon (produced within a testicle), is a small cell containing a single long flagellum which propels it. Spermatozoa are extremely reduced cells, lacking many cellular components that would be necessary for embryonic development. They are specialized for motility, seeking out an egg cell and fusing with it in a process called fertilization.

Female gametes are egg cells (produced within ovaries), large immobile cells that contain the nutrients and cellular components necessary for a developing embryo. Egg cells are often associated with other cells which support the development of the embryo, forming an egg. In mammals, the fertilized embryo instead develops within the female, receiving nutrition directly from its mother.

Animals are usually mobile and seek out a partner of the opposite sex for mating. Animals which live in the water can mate using external fertilization, where the eggs and sperm are released into and combine within the surrounding water. Most animals that live outside of water, however, must transfer sperm from male to female to achieve internal fertilization.

In most birds, both excretion and reproduction is done through a single posterior opening, called the cloaca—male and female birds touch cloaca to transfer sperm, a process called "cloacal kissing". In many other terrestrial animals, males use specialized sex organs to assist the transport of sperm—these male sex organs are called intromittent organs. In humans and other mammals this male organ is the penis, which enters the female reproductive tract (called the vagina) to achieve insemination—a process called sexual intercourse. The penis contains a tube through which semen (a fluid containing sperm) travels. In female mammals the vagina connects with the uterus, an organ which directly supports the development of a fertilized embryo within (a process called gestation).

Because of their motility, animal sexual behavior can involve coercive sex. Traumatic insemination, for example, is used by some insect species to inseminate females through a wound in the abdominal cavity – a process detrimental to the female's health.

Plants

[8][9]Flowers are the sexual organs of flowering plants, usually containing both male and female parts.Main article: Plant reproductionLike animals, plants have developed specialized male and female gametes. Within most familiar plants, male gametes are contained within hard coats, forming pollen. The female gametes of plants are contained within ovules; once fertilized by pollen these form seeds which, like eggs, contain the nutrients necessary for the development of the embryonic plant.

[10]

[11]

Female (left) and male (right) cones are the sex organs of pines and other conifers.Many plants have flowers and these are the sexual organs of those plants. Flowers are usually hermaphroditic, producing both male and female gametes. The female parts, in the center of a flower, are the carpels—one or more of these may be merged to form a single pistil. Within carpels are ovules which develop into seeds after fertilization. The male parts of the flower are the stamens: these long filamentous organs are arranged between the pistil and the petals and produce pollen at their tips. When a pollen grain lands upon the top of a carpel, the tissues of the plant react to transport the grain down into the carpel to merge with an ovule, eventually forming seeds.

In pines and other conifers the sex organs are conifer cones and have male and female forms. The more familiar female cones are typically more durable, containing ovules within them. Male cones are smaller and produce pollen which is transported by wind to land in female cones. As with flowers, seeds form within the female cone after pollination.

Because plants are immobile, they depend upon passive methods for transporting pollen grains to other plants. Many plants, including conifers and grasses, produce lightweight pollen which is carried by wind to neighboring plants. Other plants have heavier, sticky pollen that is specialized for transportation by insects. The plants attract these insects with nectar-containing flowers. Insects transport the pollen as they move to other flowers, which also contain female reproductive organs, resulting in pollination. [12][13]Mushrooms are produced as part of fungal sexual reproduction.===Fungi=== Main article: Mating in fungiMost fungi reproduce sexually, having both a haploid and diploid stage in their life cycles. These fungi are typically isogamous, lacking male and female specialization: haploid fungi grow into contact with each other and then fuse their cells. In some of these cases the fusion is asymmetric, and the cell which donates only a nucleus (and not accompanying cellular material) could arguably be considered "male".

Some fungi, including baker's yeast, have mating types that create a duality similar to male and female roles. Yeast with the same mating type will not fuse with each other to form diploid cells, only with yeast carrying the other mating type.

Fungi produce mushrooms as part of their sexual reproduction. Within the mushroom diploid cells are formed, later dividing into haploid spores—the height of the mushroom aids the dispersal of these sexually produced offspring. [14][15]Sex helps the spread of advantageous traits through recombination. The diagrams compare evolution of allele frequency in a sexual population (top) and an asexual population (bottom). The vertical axis shows frequency and the horizontal axis shows time. The alleles a/A and b/B occur at random. The advantageous alleles A and B, arising independently, can be rapidly combined by sexual reproduction into the most advantageous combination AB. Asexual reproduction takes longer to achieve this combination, because it can only produce AB if A arises in an individual which already has B, or vice versa.==Sex determination== Main article: Sex-determination systemThe most basic sexual system is one in which all organisms are hermaphrodites, producing both male and female gametes—this is true of some animals (e.g. snails) and the majority of flowering plants. In many cases, however, specialization of sex has evolved such that some organisms produce only male or only female gametes. The biological cause for an organism developing into one sex or the other is called sex determination.

In the majority^{[citation needed]} of species with sex specialization organisms are either male (producing only male gametes) or female (producing only female gametes). Exceptions are common—for example, in the roundworm C. elegans the two sexes are hermaphrodite and male (a system called androdioecy).

Sometimes an organism's development is intermediate between male and female, a condition called intersex. Sometimes intersex individuals are called "hermaphrodite"; but, unlike biological hermaphrodites, intersex individuals are unusual cases and are not typically fertile in both male and female aspects.

Genetic

[16][17]Like humans and other mammals, the common fruit fly has an XY sex-determination system.In genetic sex-determination systems, an organism's sex is determined by the genome it inherits. Genetic sex-determination usually depends on asymmetrically inherited sex chromosomes which carry genetic features that influence development; sex may be determined either by the presence of a sex chromosome or by how many the organism has. Genetic sex-determination, because it is determined by chromosome assortment, usually results in a 1:1 ratio of male and female offspring.

Humans and other mammals have an XY sex-determination system: the Y chromosome carries factors responsible for triggering male development. The default sex, in the absence of a Y chromosome, is female. Thus, XX mammals are female and XY are male. XY sex determination is found in other organisms, including the common fruit fly and some plants. In some cases, including in the fruit fly, it is the number of X chromosomes that determines sex rather than the presence of a Y chromosome (see below).

In birds, which have a ZW sex-determination system, the opposite is true: the W chromosome carries factors responsible for female development, and default development is male. In this case ZZ individuals are male and ZW are female. The majority of butterflies and moths also have a ZW sex-determination system. In both XY and ZW sex determination systems, the sex chromosome carrying the critical factors is often significantly smaller, carrying little more than the genes necessary for triggering the development of a given sex.

Many insects use a sex determination system based on the number of sex chromosomes. This is called X0 sex-determination—the 0 indicates the absence of the sex chromosome. All other chromosomes in these organisms are diploid, but organisms may inherit one or two X chromosomes. In field crickets, for example, insects with a single X chromosome develop as male, while those with two develop as female. In the nematode C. elegans most worms are self-fertilizing XX hermaphrodites, but occasionally abnormalities in chromosome inheritance regularly give rise to individuals with only one X chromosome—these X0 individuals are fertile males (and half their offspring are male).

Other insects, including honey bees and ants, use a haplodiploid sex-determination system. In this case diploid individuals are generally female, and haploid individuals (which develop from unfertilized eggs) are male. This sex-determination system results in highly biased sex ratios, as the sex of offspring is determined by fertilization rather than the assortment of chromosomes during meiosis. [18][19]Clownfish are initially male; the largest fish in a group becomes female.===Nongenetic=== For many species sex is not determined by inherited traits, but instead by environmental factors experienced during development or later in life. Many reptiles have temperature-dependent sex determination: the temperature embryos experience during their development determines the sex of the organism. In some turtles, for example, males are produced at lower incubation temperatures than females; this difference in critical temperatures can be as little as 1–2°C.

Many fish change sex over the course of their lifespan, a phenomenon called sequential hermaphroditism. In clownfish, smaller fish are male, and the dominant and largest fish in a group becomes female. In many wrasses the opposite is true—most fish are initially female and become male when they reach a certain size. Sequential hermaphrodites may produce both types of gametes over the course of their lifetime, but at any given point they are either female or male.

In some ferns the default sex is hermaphrodite, but ferns which grow in soil that has previously supported hermaphrodites are influenced by residual hormones to instead develop as male.

Sexual dimorphism

[20][21]Common Pheasants are sexually dimorphic in both size and appearance.Main article: sexual dimorphismMany animals have differences between the male and female sexes in size and appearance, a phenomenon called sexual dimorphism. Sexual dimorphisms are often associated with sexual selection – the competition between individuals of one sex to mate with the opposite sex. Antlers in male deer, for example, are used in combat between males to win reproductive access to female deer. In many cases the male of a species is larger in size; in mammals species with high sexual size dimorphism tend to have highly polygynous mating systems—presumably due to selection for success in competition with other males.

Other animals, including most insects and many fish, have larger females. This may be associated with the cost of producing egg cells, which requires more nutrition than producing sperm—larger females are able to produce more eggs. Occasionally this dimorphism is extreme, with males reduced to living as parasites dependent on the female.

In birds, males often have a more colourful appearance and may have features (like the long tail of male peacocks) that would seem to put the organism at a disadvantage (e.g. bright colors would seem to make a bird more visible to predators). One proposed explanation for this is the handicap principle. This hypothesis says that, by demonstrating he can survive with such handicaps, the male is advertising his genetic fitness to females—traits that will benefit daughters as well, who will not be encumbered with such handicaps.

Sex differences in humans include, generally, a larger size and more body hair in men; women have breasts, wider hips, and a higher body fat percentage.

See also

• Sexual conflict

References

1. ^ "Book Review for Life: A Natural History of the First Four Billion Years of Life on Earth". Jupiter Scientific. http://jupiterscientific.org/review/life.html. Retrieved 2008-04-07.
2. ^ Amanda Schaffer, "Pas de Deux: Why Are There Only Two Sexes?", Slate, updated 2007-09-27.
3. ^ Laurence D. Hurst, "Why are There Only Two Sexes?", Proceedings: Biological Sciences, 263 (1996): 415–422.
4. ^ Haag ES (2007). "Why two sexes? Sex determination in multicellular organisms and protistan mating types". Seminars in Cell and Developmental Biology 18 (3): 348–9. doi:10.1016/j.semcdb.2007.05.009. PMID 17644371.
5. ^ Stiglec R, Ezaz T, Graves JA (2007). "A new look at the evolution of avian sex chromosomes". Cytogenet. Genome Res. 117 (1–4): 103–109. doi:10.1159/000103170. PMID 17675850.
6. ^ Grützner, F.; Rens, W., Tsend-Ayush, E., El-Mogharbel, N., O'Brien, P.C.M., Jones, R.C., Ferguson-Smith, M.A. and Marshall, J.A. (2004). "In the platypus a meiotic chain of ten sex chromosomes shares genes with the bird Z and mammal X chromosomes". Nature 432 (7019): 913–917. doi:10.1038/nature03021. PMID 15502814.
7. ^ Alberts et al. (2002), U.S. National Institutes of Health, "V. 20. The Benefits of Sex".
8. ^ Alberts et al. (2002), "V. 20. Meiosis", U.S. NIH, webpage: V. 20. Meiosis.
9. ^ Gilbert (2000), "1.2. Multicellularity: Evolution of Differentiation", NIH, webpage:1.2.Mul.
10. ^ Alberts et al. (2002), "V. 21. Caenorhabditis Elegans: Development as Indiv. Cell", U.S. NIH, webpage: V. 21. Caenorhabditis.
11. ^ Alberts et al. (2002), "3. Mendelian genetics in eukaryotic life cycles", U.S. NIH, webpage: 3. Mendelian/eukaryotic.
12. ^ Alberts et al. (2002), "V.20. Sperm", U.S. NIH, webpage: V.20. Sperm.
13. ^ Alberts et al. (2002), "V.20. Eggs", U.S. NIH, webpage: V.20. Eggs.
14. ^ Alberts et al. (2002), "V.20. Fertilization", U.S. NIH, webpage: V.20. Fertilization.
15. ^ Ritchison G. "Avian Reproduction". Eastern Kentucky University. http://people.eku.edu/ritchisong/avianreproduction.html. Retrieved 2008-04-03.
16. ^ Gilbert (2000), "4.20. Gamete Production in Angiosperms", U.S. NIH, webpage: 4.20. Gamete/Angio..
17. ^ Nick Lane (2005). Power, Sex, Suicide: Mitochondria and the Meaning of Life. Oxford University Press. pp. 236–237. ISBN 0192804812.
18. ^ Matthew P Scott, Paul Matsudaira, Harvey Lodish, James Darnell, Lawrence Zipursky, Chris A Kaiser, Arnold Berk, Monty Krieger (2000). Molecular Cell Biology (Fourth ed.). WH Freeman and Co. ISBN 0-7167-4366-3. 14.1. Cell-Type Specification and Mating-Type Conversion in Yeast
19. ^ ^{a b} Dellaporta SL, Calderon-Urrea A (1993). "Sex Determination in Flowering Plants". The Plant Cell (American Society of Plant Biologists) 5 (10): 1241–1251. doi:10.2307/3869777. JSTOR 3869777. PMC 160357. PMID 8281039.
20. ^ Smith CA, Katza M, Sinclair AH (2003). "DMRT1 Is Upregulated in the Gonads During Female-to-Male Sex Reversal in ZW Chicken Embryos". Biology of Reproduction 68 (2): 560–570. doi:10.1095/biolreprod.102.007294. PMID 12533420.
21. ^ "Evolution of the Y Chromosome". Annenberg Media. http://www.learner.org/channel/courses/biology/textbook/gender/gender_4.html. Retrieved 2008-04-01.
22. ^ Yoshimura A (2005). "Karyotypes of two American field crickets: Gryllus rubens and Gryllus sp. (Orthoptera: Gryllidae)". Entomological Science 8 (3): 219–222. doi:10.1111/j.1479-8298.2005.00118.x.
23. ^ Riddle DL, Blumenthal T, Meyer BJ, Priess JR (1997). C. Elegans II. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press. ISBN 0-87969-532-3. 9.II. Sexual Dimorphism
24. ^ Charlesworth B (2003). "Sex Determination in the Honeybee". Cell 114 (4): 397–398. doi:10.1016/S0092-8674(03)00610-X. PMID 12941267.
25. ^ Tanurdzic M and Banks JA (2004). "Sex-Determining Mechanisms in Land Plants". The Plant Cell 16: S61–S71. doi:10.1105/tpc.016667. PMC 2643385. PMID 15084718.
26. ^ Darwin C (1871). The Descent of Man. Murray, London. ISBN 0801420857.
27. ^ Stuart-Smith J, Swain R, Stuart-Smith R, Wapstra E (2007). "Is fecundity the ultimate cause of female-biased size dimorphism in a dragon lizard?". Journal of Zoology 273 (3): 266–272. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.2007.00324.x.
28. ^ Zahavi, A. and Zahavi, A. (1997) The handicap principle: a missing piece of Darwin's puzzle. Oxford University Press. Oxford. ISBN 0-19-510035-2

Further reading

• Arnqvist, G. & Rowe, L. (2005) Sexual conflict. Princeton University Press, Princeton. ISBN 0691122172
• Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, Raff M, Roberts K, and Walter P (2002). Molecular Biology of the Cell (4th ed.). New York: Garland Science. ISBN 0-8153-3218-1.
• Gilbert SF (2000). Developmental Biology (6th ed.). Sinauer Associates, Inc.. ISBN 0-87893-243-7.
• Maynard-Smith, J. The Evolution of Sex. Cambridge University Press, 1978.

External links

• Human Sexual Differentiation by P. C. Sizonenko
• New Scientist article on Sex chromosomes in the platypus

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Kauai

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaJump to: navigation, search

Kauaʻi
The Garden Isle
[33] August 1995 satellite photo.
[34] Location in the state of Hawaii.
Geography
Location	22°05′N 159°30′W / 22.083°N 159.5°W / 22.083; -159.5
Area	562.3 sq mi (1430.4 km²)
Rank	4th largest Hawaiian Island
Highest point	Kawaikini
Max elevation	5,243 ft (1,598 m)
Demographics
Population	65,689 (as of 2008)
Density	106/sq mi (41/km²)
Official Insignia
Flower	Mokihana (Melicope anisata)
Color	Poni (purple)

Kauaʻi or Kauai ( /ˈkaʊ.aɪ/; Hawaiian: [kɔuˈwɐʔi]), known as Tauaʻi in the ancient Kaua'i dialect, is geologically the oldest of the main Hawaiian Islands. With an area of 562.3 square miles (1,456.4 km²), it is the fourth largest of the main islands in the Hawaiian archipelago, and the 21st largest island in the United States. Known also as the "Garden Isle", Kauaʻi lies 105 miles (170 km) across the Kauaʻi Channel, northwest of Oʻahu. This island is the site of Waimea Canyon State Park.

The United States Census Bureau defines Kauaʻi as Census Tracts 401 through 409 of Kauaʻi County, Hawaiʻi, which is all of the county except for the islands of Kaʻula, Lehua, and Niʻihau. The 2000 census population of Kauaʻi (the island) was 58,303.

[edit] Etymology and language

Native Hawaiian tradition indicates the name's origin in the legend of Hawaiʻiloa — the Polynesian navigator attributed with discovery of the Hawaiian Islands. The story relates how he named the island of Kauaʻi after a favorite son; therefore a possible translation of Kauaʻi is "place around the neck", meaning how a father would carry a favorite child. Another possible translation is "food season."

Kauaʻi was known for its distinct dialect of the Hawaiian language before it went extinct there. Whereas the standard language today is based on the dialect of Hawaiʻi island, which has the sound [k] at the beginning of words, the Kauaʻi dialect was known for pronouncing this as [t]. In effect, Kauaʻi dialect retained the old pan-Polynesian /t/, while 'standard' Hawaiʻi dialect has innovated and changed it to the [k]. Therefore, the native name for Kauaʻi was Tauaʻi, and the major settlement of Kapaʻa would have been called Tapaʻa.

[edit] Geography

Kauaʻi's origins are volcanic, the island having been formed by the passage of the Pacific plate over the Hawaii hotspot. At approximately six million years old, it is the oldest of the main islands. The highest peak on this mountainous island is Kawaikini at 5,243 feet (1,598 m). The second highest peak is Mount Waiʻaleʻale near the center of the island, 5,148 feet (1,569 m) above sea level. One of the wettest spots on earth, with an annual average rainfall of 460 inches (1,200 cm), is located on the east side of Mount Waiʻaleʻale. The high annual rainfall has eroded deep valleys in the central mountains, carving out canyons with many scenic waterfalls. On the west side of the island, Waimea town is located at the mouth of the Waimea River, whose flow formed Waimea Canyon, one of the world's most scenic canyons, and which is part of Waimea Canyon State Park. At 3,000 feet (914 m) deep, Waimea Canyon is often referred to as "The Grand Canyon of the Pacific". The Na Pali Coast is a center for recreation in a wild setting, including kayaking past the beaches, or hiking on the trail along the coastal cliffs.

[edit] History

In 1778, Captain James Cook came to Waimea Bay and discovered the “Sandwich Isles,” after the Earl of Sandwich, and in this way introduced Hawaii to Europe.

During the reign of King Kamehameha, the islands of Kauaʻi and Niʻihau were the last Hawaiian Islands to join his Kingdom of Hawaiʻi. Their ruler, Kaumualiʻi, resisted Kamehameha for years. King Kamehameha twice prepared a huge armada of ships and canoes to take the islands by force and twice failed; once due to a storm, and once due to an epidemic. In the face of the threat of a further invasion, however, Kaumualiʻi decided to join the kingdom without bloodshed, and became Kamehameha's vassal in 1810, ceding the island to the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi upon his death in 1824.

In 1815-17, Kaumualiʻi led secret negotiations with representatives of the Russian-American Company in an attempt to gain Russia's military support against Kamehameha; however, the negotiations folded and the Russians were forced to abandon all of their presence in Kauaʻi, including Fort Elizabeth, after it was revealed that they did not have the support of Tsar Alexander I.

In 1835 Old Koloa Town opened a sugar mill. Missionaries also came in the 19th century.

[edit] Economy

[35][36]The commercial area in Port AllenTourism is Kauaʻi's largest industry. In 2007, 1,271,000 visitors came to Kauaʻi. The two largest groups were from the United States (84% of all visitors) and Japan (3%). As of 2003, there were a total of approximately 27,000 jobs on Kauaʻi, of which the largest sector was accommodation/food services (26%, 6,800 jobs) followed by government (15%) and retail (14.5%), with agriculture accounting for just 2.9% (780 jobs) and educational services providing just 0.7% (183 jobs). In terms of income, the various sectors that constitute the visitors industry accounted for one third of Kauai's income. On the other hand, employment is dominated by small businesses, with 87% of all nonfarm businesses having fewer than 20 employees. As of 2003, Kauaʻi's unemployment rate was 3.9%, compared to 3.0% for the entire state and 5.7% for the United States as a whole; and, Kauaʻi's poverty rate was 10.5%, compared to the State's 10.7%.

As of mid-2004, the median price of a single-family home was $528,000, a 40% increase over 2003. As of 2003, Kauaʻi's percentage of home ownership, 48%, was significantly lower than the State's 64%, and vacation homes were a far larger part of the housing stock than the State-wide percentage (Kauaʻi 15%, State 5%).

In the past, sugar plantations were Kauaʻi's most important industry. In 1835 the first sugar plantation was founded on Kauai and for the next century the industry would dominate the economy of Hawaii. The minimum wage law (Federal Labor Standards Act) and protected the rights of workers to unionize led to the closure of most of the sugar plantation.^{[citation needed]} Now most of that land is now used for ranching. Kauaʻi's sole remaining sugar operation, the 118-year-old Gay & Robinson Plantation plans to transform itself into a manufacturer of sugar-cane ethanol.

[edit] Fruits and crops

Land in Kauaʻi is very fertile and is home to many varieties of fruits and crops. Guava, coffee, sugarcane, mango, banana, papaya, avocado, star fruit, kava and pineapple are all cultivated.

[edit] Island facts

[37][38]Some of Kauaʻi's feral chickens at Kōke'e State ParkKaua'i, like the other Hawaiian Islands, does not observe Daylight saving time (DST). Instead of changing to DST the second Sunday in March and back to Standard time the first Sunday in November, as is done throughout most of the U.S., Hawaii Standard Time is observed on Kaua'i year-round. During DST, for example, the time on Kaua'i is three hours behind the West Coast of the United States and six hours behind the East Coast.

The city of Līhuʻe, on the island's southeast coast, is the seat of Kauaʻi County and the second largest city on the island. Kapaʻa, on the "Coconut Coast" (site of an old coconut plantation) about 6 miles (9.7 km) north of Līhuʻe, has a population of nearly 10,000, or about 50% greater than Līhuʻe. Waimea, once the capital of Kauaʻi on the island's southwest side, was the first place in Hawaii visited by British explorer Captain James Cook in 1778. Kauaʻi is home to thousands of wild chickens, who have few natural predators. Kauaʻi's chickens originated from the original Polynesian settlers, who brought them as a food source. 1992's Hurricane Iniki may have caused an indirect change in Kauaʻi's ecosystem, increasing the chicken population.

Kauaʻi is home to the U.S. Navy's "Barking Sands" Pacific Missile Range Facility, on the sunny and dry western shore.

HF ("shortwave") radio station WWVH, sister station to WWV and WWVB in Ft. Collins, Colorado, is located on the west coast of Kauai about 5 km south of Barking Sands. WWVH, WWV and WWVB are operated by the US National Institute of Standards and Technology, broadcasting standard time and frequency information to the public.

The Kauai Heritage Center of Hawaiian Culture and the Arts was founded in 1998. Their mission is to nurture a greater sense of appreciation and respect for the Hawaiian culture. They offer classes in Hawaiian language, hula, lei and cordage making, the lunar calendar and chanting. Plus trips to cultural sites. [39][40]A view of the Hanalei Valley in Northern Kauaʻi. The Hanalei River runs through the valley and 60% of Hawaii's taro is grown in its fields.[41][42]A view of the Nā Pali coastline from the ocean. It is part of the Nā Pali Coast State Park which encompasses 6,175 acres (20 km²) of land and is located on the northwest side of Kauaʻi.[43][44]A view of the Kalalau Valley on Kauaʻi's Na Pali Coast from the Kalalau Lookout.==[edit] Important towns and cities== [45][46]Hanalei Town with a view of Mt. Na Molokama, and Māmalahoa.[47][48]Northeastern coast of Kauaʻi, near KīlaueaCities and towns on Kauaʻi range in population from the roughly 9,500 people in Kapaʻa to tiny hamlets. The list below lists the larger or more notable of those from the northernmost end of Hawaii Route 560 to the western terminus of Hawaii Route 50.

• Hāʻena
• Wainiha
• Hanalei
• Princeville
• Kalihiwai
• Kilauea
• Anahola
• Kapaʻa
• Wailua
• Hanamāʻulu
• Līhuʻe
• Poʻipū
• Kōloa
• Lāwaʻi
• Kalāheo
• ʻEleʻele
• Hanapēpe
• Kaumakani
• Waimea
• Kekaha

[edit] Transportation

[edit] Air

Located on the eastern end of the island, Lihue Airport is the aviation gateway to Kauaʻi. Lihuʻe Airport has direct routes to Seattle/Tacoma, Phoenix, LAX, DEN, SFO, OAK, SJC, Vancouver, Honolulu, and Kahului/Maui.

[edit] Highways

Several state highways serve Kauaʻi County:

• Hawaii Route 50, also known as Kaumualiʻi Highway, is a thirty-three mile road that stretches from Hawaii Route 56 at the junction of Rice Street in Lihuʻe to a point approximately 1/5 mile north of the northernmost entrance of the Pacific Missile Range Facility on the far western shore.
• Hawaii Route 58 stretches two miles (3 km) from Route 50 in Lihuʻe to the junction of Wapaa Road with Hawaii 51 near Nawiliwili Harbor on Kauaʻi.
• Hawaii Route 56, also known as Kuhio Highway, runs twenty-eight miles from Hawaii Route 50 at the junction of Rice Street in Lihuʻe to the junction of Hawaii Route 560 in Princeville.
• Hawaii Route 560 passes ten miles (16 km) from the junction of Route 56 in Princeville and dead ends at Keʻe Beach in Haena State Park.

Other major highways that link other parts of the Island to the main highways of Kauaʻi are:

• Hawaii Route 55 covers 7.6 miles (12.2 km) from the junction of Route 50 in Kekaha to meet with Hawaii Route 550 south of Kokeʻe State Park in the Waimea Canyon.
• Hawaii Route 550 spans 15 miles (24 km) from Route 50 in Waimea to Kōkeʻe State Park.
• Hawaii Route 540 goes four miles (6 km) from Route 50 in Kalaheo to Route 50 in Eleʻele. The road is mainly an access to residential areas and Kauaʻi Coffee.
• Hawaii Route 530, also called Kōloa Road, stretches 3.4 miles (5.5 km) from Route 50 between Kalaheo and Lawai to Route 520 in Koloa. The road is mainly an alternative to Route 520 for travel from the west side to Poʻipū.
• Hawaii Route 520 runs five miles (8 km) from the "Tunnel of Trees" at Route 50 to Poʻipū on the south shore.
• Hawaii Route 570 covers one mile (1.6 km) from Route 56 in Lihuʻe to Lihuʻe Airport.
• Hawaii Route 580 spans five miles (8 km) from Route 56 in Wailua to where the road is no longer serviced just south of the Wailua Reservoir.
• Hawaii Route 581 passes five miles (8 km) from Route 580 in the Wailua Homesteads to a roundabout just west of Kapaʻa Town.
• Hawaii Route 583, also known as Maalo Road, stretches 3.9 miles (6.3 km) from Route 56 just north of Lihuʻe to dead-end at Wailua Falls Overlook in the interior.

[edit] Mass transit

The Kauaʻi Bus is the public transportation service of the County of Kauaʻi. It is operated by Roberts Hawaii.

[edit] Places of interest

[49][50]The Spouting Horn: located on the southern coast of Kauaʻi*Alakai Wilderness Area

• Allerton Garden
• Bell stone
• Camp Naue YMCA
• Fern Grotto
• Hanalei Bay
• Honopo arch
• Iraivan temple
• Keʻe Beach
• Kokeʻe State Park
• Limahuli Garden and Preserve
• Makauwahi Cave Reserve
• Makeleha Mountains
• McBryde Garden
• Moir Gardens
• Moloaa Bay
• Na 'Aina Kai Botanical Gardens
• Nā Pali Coast State Park
• Na'Pali-Kona Forest Reserve
• Poi'pu Beach State Park
• Polihale State Park
• Princeville North Shore
• 'Opaeka'a Falls
• Sleeping Giant (Nounou Mountain)
• Spouting Horn
• Wailua River
• Waimea Canyon

[edit] In films

The island of Kauaʻi has been featured in more than seventy Hollywood movies and television shows, including the musical South Pacific and Disney's 2002 animated feature film and television series Lilo & Stitch, Lilo & Stitch 2: Stitch Has a Glitch, Stitch! The Movie, and Lilo & Stitch: The Series. Scenes from South Pacific were filmed in the vicinity of Hanalei. Waimea Canyon was used in the filming of the 1993 film Jurassic Park. Parts of the island were also used for the opening scenes of Indiana Jones' Raiders of the Lost Ark. Other movies filmed here include Six Days Seven Nights, the 2005 remake of King Kong and John Ford's 1963 film Donovan's Reef. Recent films include Tropic Thunder and an upcoming biopic of Bethany Hamilton entitled Soul Surfer. A scene in the opening credits of popular TV show M*A*S*H was filmed in Kauai (helicopter flying over mountain top). Some scenes from Pirates of the Caribbean: On Stranger Tides were also filmed in Kauai.

Parts of the film Dragonfly were filmed there (although the people and the land were presented as South American) and the producers hired extras (at least three with speaking parts) from the ancient Hawaiʻian native population, which seeks to preserve its cultural heritage, including the pre-USA name of these two islands, Atooi or Tauaʻi.

Major parts of the 1966 Elvis Presley film Paradise, Hawaiian Style were filmed at various locations on Kauai. One of the most famous was the Coco Palms resort. During Hurricane Iniki, the Coco Palms was decimated and never rebuilt, but the film showcases the resort at its peak.

[edit] See also

• Hurricane Iniki
• Kauai cave wolf spider
• List of beaches in Kauai
• National Register of Historic Places listings in Hawaii#Kauai
• Tourism on Kauaʻi

[edit] Notes

1. ^ Kauai County QuickFacts from the US Census Bureau
2. ^ "Mokihana". Native Hawaiian Plants. Kapiʻolani Community College. http://old.kcc.hawaii.edu/campus/tour/plants/pmokihana.htm. Retrieved 2009-03-07.
3. ^ The spelling with the ʻokina accent (as "Kauaʻi") indicates syllable "i" with respelled pronunciation as "cow-Eye" or "cow-a-ee". Sometimes, an apostrophe or grave is used, as: Kaua'i or Kaua`i.
4. ^ "Table 5.08 - Land Area of Islands: 2000". 2004 State of Hawaii Data Book. State of Hawaii. 2004. http://www.hawaii.gov/dbedt/info/economic/databook/db2004/section05.pdf. Retrieved 2007-07-23.
5. ^ Census Tracts 401 through 409, Kauaʻi County United States Census Bureau
6. ^ Pukui, Mary Kawena. Place Names of Hawaii. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 0-8248-0524-0.
7. ^ "Table 5.11 - Elevations of Major Summits". 2004 State of Hawaii Data Book. State of Hawaii. 2004. http://www.hawaii.gov/dbedt/info/economic/databook/db2004/section05.pdf. Retrieved 2007-07-23.
8. ^ ^{a b c} "Kauai Economic Outlook Summary: Tourism Woes Mean No Growth Through 2009". University of Hawaii Economic Research Organization]. 2008. http://www.kauai.gov/Government/Departments/EconomicDevelopment/EconomicStatisticsandForecasting/tabid/256/Default.aspx. Retrieved 2008-11-05.
9. ^ ^{a b c d e} "Kauai Economic Development Plan 2005-20015". County of Kauai Office of Economic Development,Kauai Economic Development Board. 2004. http://www.kauai.gov/portals/0/oed/KEDP_2005-2015.pdf. Retrieved 2008-11-05.
10. ^ Kauai Plantation Railway - Kauai Sugar Plantations
11. ^ Discover Kauai
12. ^ Background of loss of language and culture: the takeover of Hawaiʻi by the USA in 1893.
13. ^ Current interest in the language and culture.
14. ^ Original name and language discussion.

[edit] References

• Edward Joesting. Kauaʻi, the Separate Kingdom. University of Hawaiʻi Press and Kauaʻi Museum Association. Honolulu. 1984. ISBN 0-8248-1162-3
• Cook, Chris (October 1996). The Kaua’i Movie Book. Landscape photography by David Boynton. Honolulu: Mutual Publishing. ISBN 1-56647-141-9.

[edit] External links

• Kauai Tourism links at the Open Directory Project
• Kauai Business and Economy links at the Open Directory Project
• Kauaʻi Chamber of Commerce

Coordinates: 22°05′N 159°30′W / 22.083°N 159.5°W / 22.083; -159.5 Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kauai"View page ratingsRate this pageRate this pagePage ratingsWhat's this?Current average ratings.Trustworthy Objective Complete Well-written I am highly knowledgeable about this topic (optional)I have a relevant college/university degreeIt is part of my professionIt is a deep personal passionThe source of my knowledge is not listed here I would like to help improve Wikipedia, send me an e-mail (optional) We will send you a confirmation e-mail. We will not share your address with anyone. (Privacy policy)Submit ratingsSaved successfullyYour ratings have not been submitted yetYour ratings have expiredPlease reevaluate this page and submit new ratings.An error has occured. Please try again later.Thanks! Your ratings have been saved.Please take a moment to complete a short survey.Start surveyMaybe laterThanks! Your ratings have been saved.Do you want to create an account?An account will help you track your edits, get involved in discussions, and be a part of the community.Create an accountorLog inMaybe laterThanks! Your ratings have been saved.Did you know that you can edit this page?Edit this pageMaybe laterCategories: Volcanoes of Hawaii | Pliocene volcanism | Extinct volcanoes | Kauai | Islands of HawaiiHidden categories: All articles with unsourced statements | Articles with unsourced statements from May 2011

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